Apparatus and methods for safely providing hazardous reactants

ABSTRACT

An apparatus for providing a reactant comprises a reactant space and a reservoir space. The reactant space comprises a chemical complex capable of evolving the reactant when heated. The reservoir space, in turn, is in gas communication with the reactant space. The apparatus is operative to heat the chemical complex when a pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is below a predetermined set-point, and to cool the chemical complex when the pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is above the predetermined set-point.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to chemical sources, and, more particularly, to apparatus and methods for providing hazardous reactants such as hydrazine while mitigating hazards associated with storage, environmental spills, and over-production.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Hazardous reactive chemicals are commonly used as reactants to promote chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), and other processes. Some of these chemicals are particularly unstable and dangerous. For example, CVD and ALD growth of a variety of nitride films have been demonstrated with the aid of hydrazine (N₂H₄) as the nitrogen and reducing source with superior process performance and film properties over other, less reactive nitrogen sources. Nevertheless, the use of hydrazine in commercial CVD and ALD processes has been hampered by concerns about the safety implications of this extremely unstable, explosive, and hazardous chemical reactant.

Generally speaking, hydrazine is a low cost chemical widely used in the chemical industry for a variety of processes. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives are also being used as rocket propellants. Overall annual production of hydrazine typically exceeds 50,000 tons. With the exception of propellants, hydrazine is typically stored, transported, and used in the much safer aqueous solutions ranging from 35-64 weight-percent (wt %). For applications such as CVD and ALD, however, these aqueous solutions are typically disadvantageous. In particular, most applications require high-purity anhydrous hydrazine with its associated safety and toxicity issues. A spill of liquid anhydrous hydrazine may easily self ignite, raise the localized temperature and, as a result, the localized partial pressure, and ultimately detonate when the localized partial pressure in air exceeds 4.7% and the localized temperature exceeds 92 degrees Celsius (° C.). The explosion damage coupled with the spread of toxic NO and NO₂ by-products can be catastrophic. The potential danger from anhydrous hydrazine spills makes it unpopular as a rocket propellant, let alone as an industrial chemical reactant. Accordingly, hydrazine derivatives such as monomethylhydrazine and dimethylhydrazine have been invoked as safer substitutions. Unfortunately, both derivatives have found very limited use in processes such as CVD and ALD due to their lower reactivity and the tendency to include carbon in films.

Hydrazine cyanurate (HC) is a stable complex of hydrazine that was developed and made public by Nachbaur and Leiseder for the purpose of purification and separation as early as 1971. When heated above 170° C., HC decomposes into the ingredients hydrazine and cyanuric acid (CA). Hydrazine production from HC depends on the temperature and the quantity of HC. In the temperature range between 170-245° C., the partial pressure of CA is negligible. Above 245° C., CA disadvantageously decomposes into hydrocyanic acid. Otherwise, when HC is relatively cold (i.e. below about 100° C.), it is stable and safe. These characteristics led others to propose HC for industrial hydrazine production purposes. More particularly, T. J. Kropewnicki et al. in “Hydrazine Cyanurate as a Nitrogen Source for Thin Nitride Film Growth,” Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A16(1), January/February 1998, pp. 139-144; and K. J. Taylor et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,465,350, entitled “Aluminum Nitride Film Formation on Integrated Circuits,” propose forming hydrazine from HC for CVD nitridization reactions. Nevertheless, these references only set forth methodologies consisting of heating HC to an elevated temperature (e.g., 210° C.) and simply leaving it at this temperature while one or several CVD reaction sequences are allowed to run. No regard is paid to the consistency of the hydrazine supply within a given CVD sequence or from one sequence to the next, to the potential for the catastrophic accumulation of hydrazine in the reactor or the heated source due to overproduction and condensation, or to compensating for the drop in hydrazine production as hydrazine in the HC source is exhausted. As a result, even with these various attempts to harness hydrazine from HC, HC has seen no significant implementation in industrial deposition processes despite the many well known benefits of using hydrazine as a reactant and despite the availability of HC for over 35 years.

Low-volatility chemicals can be consistently maintained at a desired partial pressure when placed in an elevated temperature container. This stable vapor pressure at a given temperature ensures the consistency of chemical supply and an automatic, per-demand, supplementation of the source to maintain the desired pressure. For example, during processing, the source chemical is being drawn into the process chamber to effectively drive the partial pressure down and subsequently drive more chemical into the gas phase to maintain the equilibrium vapor pressure.

Evolving hydrazine from HC is fundamentally different. Hydrazine evolution from HC is a continuous process that produces substantial quantities of hydrazine for as long as the source temperature is sufficiently high. For example, about 1.8×10⁻⁸ grams/sec of hydrazine is produced per each gram of HC at 170° C., as detailed below. FIG. 1 displays hydrazine production versus time, normalized to one gram of HC, as measured from the pressure rise inside a ˜2 liter (L) container. Clearly, the rate of hydrazine production increases at higher temperatures. The absolute rates of hydrazine production are estimated from the given known volume and the potency of HC. These rates were used to extract the kinetics of hydrazine production, as displayed in FIG. 2. A good fit to a linear dependence of log(rate) versus 1/T, wherein T is the absolute temperature, indicates a first order Arrhenius behavior with an activation energy of 48±2 kilocalories per mole and the normalized rate is given by: k (hydrazine production/gram of HC)=6±2×10¹⁵ exp(−(24,000±1,000)/T) grams/sec. Accordingly, significant production of hydrazine does not start at temperatures lower than about 170° C. At room temperature (i.e., 25° C.), for example, hydrazine production is negligibly low at 4×10⁻²³ grams/sec/gram-of-HC. At that rate, one kilogram (kg) of HC will require almost 800 years to produce a negligible one nanogram of hydrazine. However, at 200° C., one kg produces 550 micrograms in one second. At 230° C., which is recommended as the highest safe temperature for HC heating (with ˜15° C. margin), hydrazine production from one kg of HC reaches ˜40 grams/hour.

Production of hydrazine at any given temperature is clearly a continuous process that declines with the exhaustion of the HC load. Since hydrazine is being continuously produced, it clearly lacks any mechanism to ensure that this hazardous chemical is not over-produced and consequently accumulates beyond demand. Eventually, over-production of hydrazine may exceed the dew point at the given source temperature and excess hydrazine may condense into liquid anhydrous hydrazine. For example, if the temperature of a 1 kg HC load is maintained at 200° C., the initial production rate of ˜0.0330 grams/min will exceed the dew-point pressure of 55 Torr after approximately 15 minutes within a 5 L source chamber maintained at 50° C. At that point the source will start accumulating hazardous liquid anhydrous hydrazine. Indeed, the inventors observed that hydrazine production did not produce any pressure rise above ˜18 Torr when the source chamber temperature was maintained at 32° C., suggesting condensation. Upon heating the source chamber to 40° C., the pressure instantaneously rose to ˜28 Torr and then saturated there. Although production rate will slow down with the exhaustion of HC, it will produce ten grams of liquid anhydrous hydrazine within approximately five hours. This over-production of hydrazine may defeat the purpose of using HC as a means for on-demand production of hydrazine. Likewise, there is no mechanism to ensure adequate supplementation of hydrazine to compensate for process usage. Hydrazine production at any given temperature scales with the potency of HC which inevitably declines as the HC adduct (i.e., chemical complex) breaks down into hydrazine and CA. Therefore, if the HC temperature is minimized to minimize over production during idle time, it may soon be too low for consistent hydrazine supply during processing, especially since the potency of HC will decline during usage as explained below.

To further demonstrate the major drawbacks of prior art practice wherein HC is maintained at a constant temperature, the inventors monitored the pressure of hydrazine inside a 2 L source chamber during a TiN ALD process using a “Synchronous Modulation of Flow and Draw” ALD process in accordance with aspects of U.S. Pat. No. 6,911,092, entitled “ALD Apparatus and Method,” to one of the presently named inventors, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Hydrazine was produced from HC at a controlled temperature of 185° C. The TiN process applied saturating TiCl₄ and hydrazine pulses to grow a high quality film at a 270° C. process temperature. Likewise, a 50 milliseconds (msec) pulse of hydrazine from a source pressure of 8 Torr generated a dose of ˜50 μgrams of hydrazine, which was sufficient to saturate the hydrazine reaction. FIG. 3 (solid line) displays the pressure of hydrazine within the source chamber during a first idle time, a first process wherein the hydrazine was pulsed for 50 msec, a second idle time, a second process wherein the hydrazine was pulsed for 100 msec, a third idle time, and a third process wherein the hydrazine was pulsed for 200 msec. In each process, the TiCl₄ was pulsed for 30 msec, which was sufficient to achieve saturation. FIG. 3 demonstrates that the practice of the prior art is neither safe nor suitable for consistent delivery of hydrazine. Hydrazine production was continuous during idle-times. During the process periods, the production of hydrazine clearly lagged behind the utilization as indicated by the dramatic pressure drops. In fact, the dose/cycle varied between 105 and 5 μgrams/pulse, 385 and 33 μgrams/pulse, and 736 and 7 μgrams/pulse over the first, second and third process runs, respectively, making any attempt to use the prior art practice for processing hopeless. There was also evidence for declining production rates with the usage of HC. For example, the average production rate declined from 1.0275×10⁻⁷ grams/sec/gram-of-HC during the first idle time to 1.0230×10⁻⁷ and 1.0216×10⁻⁷ during the second and third idle times, respectively. That was a 0.4% and 0.6% rate decrease for relatively short processes running consecutively.

In summary, a hydrazine supply, when simply held at a constant temperature, may vary by a great factor given the dependence on multiple parameters such as HC potency, initial load, temperature, the extent of previous idle time where hydrazine was produced but not consumed, and the extent of previous processing wherein hydrazine may have been consumed faster than produced. These variations could easily span an order of magnitude as shown in the example of FIG. 3. At that level of source inconsistency, even state of the art chemical delivery instruments such as mass flow controllers (MFC) or pressure controllers (PRC) might be driven into instability. Given the lack of consistency, and the lack of dependable mechanisms to prevent over production and to react to process related withdrawal or idle-time related consumption halts, the simple constant-temperature HC source of the prior art is neither safe nor suitable for process applications such as CVD and ALD.

Therefore, there is a need for apparatus and methods that can harness relatively stable, easily-handled chemical complexes of hazardous reactants such as HC into safe and consistent on-demand chemical sources for processes such as CVD, ALD, surface preparation, surface and bulk treatment, and reactive abatement.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the present invention address the above-identified needs by providing apparatus and methods for safely providing hazardous reactants such as, but not limited to, hydrazine.

In accordance with an aspect of the invention, an apparatus for providing a reactant comprises a reactant space and a reservoir space. The reactant space comprises a chemical complex capable of evolving the reactant when heated. The reservoir space, in turn, is in gas communication with the reactant space. The apparatus is operative to heat the chemical complex when a pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is below a predetermined set-point, and to cool the chemical complex when the pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is above the predetermined set-point.

In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a reactant is provided at least in part by placing a chemical complex that is capable of evolving the reactant when heated into a reactant space. A reservoir space is placed in gas communication with the reactant space. Subsequently, the chemical complex is heated when a pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is below a predetermined set-point, and cooled when the pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is above the predetermined set-point.

For example, one of the above-identified embodiments comprises an apparatus that enables safe and consistent on-demand production of hydrazine from HC. The HC is housed in a cartridge that is in gas communication with a reservoir chamber. The apparatus causes the cartridge to be heated when the hydrazine pressure in the reservoir chamber drops below a set-point value (e.g., 100 Torr) and causes the reservoir to be cooled when the hydrazine pressure in the reservoir chamber exceeds the set-point value. In this manner, hydrazine production is limited to achieving and maintaining the set-point pressure. The reservoir, in turn, supplies the hydrazine to a source chamber through a pressure control valve. The pressure control valve acts to hold the hydrazine pressure at a predetermined pressure suitable for use in processing with the hydrazine. Temperature zones in the apparatus maintain the apparatus above the dew-point temperature of the hydrazine to avoid condensation. In addition, several valves and interlocks provide a means of safely handling the reactant if a fault is detected. Once so formed, the hydrazine can be used for a plurality of uses including nitride formation, oxide formation, surface cleaning/termination, gas abatement, and surface modification. Downstream abatement elements neutralize any unconsumed hydrazine before it is vented into the atmosphere.

Advantageously, embodiments in accordance with aspects of the invention correlate production with demand to maintain consistent and proper delivery of hydrazine during processing and terminate production during idle times. Dangers associated with storage, environmental spills, and over-production are thereby mitigated.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, appended claims, and accompanying drawings where:

FIG. 1 is a chart showing hydrazine production versus time at different temperatures normalized to one gram of HC;

FIG. 2 is a chart showing the kinetics of hydrazine production;

FIG. 3 shows a chart of hydrazine pressure during three consecutive process/idle sequences under prior art conditions, as well as the performance of an apparatus in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 4 shows a flow schematic of an apparatus in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 5 shows a front perspective view of a portion of the FIG. 4 apparatus;

FIG. 6 shows a chart of hydrazine condensation temperature as a function of pressure; and

FIG. 7 shows an electrical schematic of an additive pressure and a temperature control circuit for use in the FIG. 4 apparatus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention will be described with reference to illustrative embodiments. More particularly, the following embodiments surround the production of the reactant hydrazine from the chemical complex HC. Nevertheless, numerous modifications can be made to these embodiments and the results will still come within the scope of the invention. No limitations with respect to the specific embodiments described herein are intended or should be inferred.

FIG. 4 illustrates a flow schematic of an apparatus 100 in accordance with an illustrative embodiment of the invention for film formation (e.g., film growth and film deposition). The apparatus comprises cartridge 110 used to store and transport HC, wherein a load of HC adduct is placed within cartridge chamber 111 (i.e., the “reactant space”). Cartridge 110 also comprises manual shutoff valve 112, for example, a high temperature diaphragm valve. The cartridge 110 is attached to source chamber assembly 120 comprising a reservoir 121 (i.e., the “reservoir space”) equipped with pressure gauge 122 and normally-open vent valve 123. A normally-closed control valve 125 connects reservoir 121 to source chamber 127 (i.e., the “source space”). Valve 125 allows cartridge 110 removal without compromising the integrity of the source chamber 127, as well as pressure control within source chamber 127. To execute pressure control, a pressure set-point is compared to the reading of pressure gauge 129 and subsequently used to control the position of control valve 125.

Control valve 125 is interlocked to de-energize in case there is any fault in the system such as an over-temperature cartridge 110, an over-pressure delivery manifold, or indications of hydrazine condensation (discussed below). Reservoir 121 serves as a pressure controlled reservoir wherein reservoir pressure, as measured by pressure gauge 122, is used to control hydrazine production rate. As taught in this invention, hydrazine production from HC heating bears practical limitations for cost effective modulation due to finite cartridge chamber 111 heating and cooling rates and the heat capacity of the loaded cartridge. Therefore, in the present embodiment, the combination of hydrazine production to maintain pressure within reservoir 121 and the pressure control in source chamber 127 provides consistent process pressure and accommodates the substantially abrupt on/off change in hydrazine demand between process/idle modes (i.e., processing modes wherein the apparatus 100 is actively forming films, and idle modes wherein the apparatus 100 is not actively forming films).

The temperature of the cartridge thermal zone 113 is controlled to achieve a required set reservoir pressure as measured by pressure gauge 122. This set-point pressure is determined by the need of a specific process to ensure consistent hydrazine supply when the process switches from idle to process. The cartridge chamber 111 is attached with good thermal contact to heating/cooling block 114 (see also FIG. 5). For example, the block includes a heat exchanger flow path wherein air or cooling fluid is passed to reduce the temperature of the cartridge chamber 111 quickly. The heat exchanger can be used to raise the temperature quickly by passing a hot fluid. Alternatively, heating may be accomplished by other means of heating such as resistive heating, radiant heating, etc. The apparatus 100 is setup such that the heating/cooling block 114 is normally-cooling. If the pressure as measured by pressure gauge 122 is lower than the set-point, the normally-cooling block 114 is temporarily switched into heating. “Normally cooling” means that the non-activated position is cooling. In other words, it means that cooling is the default state if an interlock is triggered or any other fault such as loss of power and cable disconnections occurs. Likewise, “normally-open valves” refer to valves that are open when not energized and “normally-closed valves” refer to valves that are closed when not energized. Normally-open vent valve 123 is typically energized to shut when hydrazine is produced. In the event of apparatus failure or power loss, vent valve 123 will open and vent any excess hydrazine into vent manifold 150, which is properly equipped with a vacuum pump, as well as a means to abate excess hydrazine safely and monitor the exhaust of the pump for unabated hazards such as hydrazine or hydrazine abatement by-products such as NO and NO₂.

Clearly, the apparatus 100 can take several physical forms. FIG. 5 shows a perspective view of a portion of one such form. In this figure, the cartridge 110 (with its cartridge thermal zone 113) sits atop the source chamber 127. Resistive heater 114′ allows heating of the cartridge, while inlet and outlet ports 114″ and 114′″, respectively, allow the circulating of cooling fluid. The bottom of the thermal shield of temperature zone 128 is also illustrated. Lastly, pressure gauge 129 and valve 130 are shown.

Optionally, control valve 125 and pressure gauge 129 may be substituted by a pressure controller such as the MKS 640A series, available from MKS Instruments (Andover, Mass., USA). In another variant meant for processes such as CVD, control valve 125 and pressure gauge 129 can also be substituted by a MFC. In such an alternative embodiment, the supply of hydrazine to the process applies mass-flow rather than pressure control. In any case, whether using MFCs or PRCs, care should be taken to ensure that material of construction of the MFCs or PRCs are compatible with hydrazine. Such devices may include, for example, the MKS 640Al2TW1DA2D or the MKS 1150C, but both require customization to replace a nickel gasket with a stainless steel or Kalrez gasket. Pressure gauges that incorporate materials compatible with hydrazine are typically suitable for the application. For example, MKS Model 728 pressure gauges are heated to 100° C. for accurate and absolute pressure measurements. The Model 728 internal parts include only Inconel and 316 series stainless steel, both compatible with hydrazine. Care should be used to use stainless steel gaskets instead of more commonly used nickel gaskets in common fittings such as VCR fittings. Hydrazine compatibility information is available in, for example, NASA's Propellant/Materials Compatibility Program and Results (1982); AIAA Paper No. 75-1245 (1975); and Space Propulsion Lectures by Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez—Lecture 5: Hydrazine, p. 2-5.

The temperature of cartridge thermal zone 113 is also restricted by at least two normally-closed temperature snap switches wired in series to ensure that the temperature will never exceed a pre-set value. Temperature sensitive snap switches suitable for such an application are commercially available from Tempco Electric Heater Corporation (Wood Dale, Ill., USA), for example, the TEV05200 (NC) and TEV05201 (NO). Preferably, the pre-set maximum temperature of zone 113 is selected to ensure that, given the temperature set-point of the snap switches, hysteresis, and a safety margin, the temperature will never exceed 245° C. This maximum temperature ensures the stability of CA and prevents the evolution of hydrocyanic acid. Preferably, the switches are wired to require manual reset if snapped in order to resume power.

For even greater safety, manual valve 112 is preferably equipped with position sensors. The heaters of cartridge thermal zone 113 are interlocked to normally shut (with concurrent switching to the default cooling) if valve 112 is not in its fully open position. As the HC adduct (i.e., the chemical complex) draws to exhaustion, it requires higher temperatures to maintain production. The cartridge 110 eventually reaches the maximum pre-set temperature wherein the temperature snap switches trigger source shutoff. There are no solid condensable substances that could be produced and accumulate in the path between cartridge chamber 111 and reservoir 121. However, if for some reason the path between cartridge 110 and source chamber assembly 120 is blocked, the temperature of zone 113 will quickly rise in an attempt to reach the set pressure and will eventually reach over temperature and trigger the thermal snap switches to terminate hydrazine production at the source. In this case, the cartridge 110 evacuation may not be possible and the cartridge will contain a minute quantity of hydrazine. Manual valve 112 will be shut to contain the cartridge chamber 111 and allow safe transfer into an isolated area such as a glove box wherein the cartridge can be serviced.

As further indicated in FIG. 4, the source chamber 127 has an output to a delivery manifold 140 through a safety shutoff valve 130. Safety shutoff valve 130 is preferably implemented using a properly selected normally-closed ultrahigh purity (UHP) valve. Source chamber 127 may be set as a second heated zone 128, if needed, to prevent condensation. This zone includes the reservoir 121, pressure gauge 122, valve 123, pressure gauge 129, and both inlet and outlet valves 125 and 130, respectively. The temperature of zone 128 should be set significantly higher than the dew point of the set pressure to eliminate condensation as known in the art. To maintain failure safety, normally-open temperature snap switches (closed when they go above pre-set temperature) are installed within temperature zone 128 to ensure that the temperature within that zone stays well above condensation temperature. In the event the temperature of zone 128 falls below preset temperature, the interlock system will deactivate zone 113 heating and revert to the normally-on cooling and the source pressure will be vented into downstream vent manifold 150.

Downstream from valve 130, delivery manifold 140 comprises pressure gauge 143 and normally-open relief valve 144. Manifold 140 connects the chemical source to the process apparatus 170 comprising process chamber 173. This connection is facilitated though line 142 and inlet valve 171. The manifold 140 may be set as a third heated zone 141, if needed, again to prevent condensation. This zone includes relief valve 144 as well. Typically, inlet valve 171 is located within a separate temperature zone 172 of the process chamber 173. Care should be taken to ensure that the temperature of heated zone 172 is equal or higher than the temperature of heated zone 141, or at the very least, higher than the dew point of hydrazine at the delivery pressure. Relief valve 144 is used to vent hydrazine out of the source chamber 127 and delivery manifold 144 if the apparatus 100 is disabled by the interlock system. Downstream from valve 144, vent manifold 150 comprises normally-closed valve 153 connecting to pump 154 and a suitably selected scrubber 155. Normally-closed valve 153 de-energizes if the pressure, as measured by pressure gauge 151, exceeds a safety set-point to ensure that hydrazine vent does not occur if the vacuum pump 154 fails or the manifold 150 develops a large leak. Vented hydrazine is scrubbed in scrubber 155 to ensure safe exhaust 157, as detected by a properly selected exhaust monitoring sensor 156.

To further ensure safety in case of a failure, the production of hydrazine is interlocked to the safe availability of the vent manifold 150. That means that hydrazine production will be disabled if manifold 150 is not fully functional. Accordingly, cartridge thermal zone 113 is normally turned off and the cooling is turned on if the pressure in pumping line 152, as measured by pressure gauge 151, is higher than a preset set-point. Additionally, this interlock includes verification for normal and satisfactory operation of pump 154 and scrubber 155, meaning that they are operating below threshold-level-value (TLV) concentrations of hazardous emissions as detected by exhaust monitoring sensor 156. The interlocks are preferably arranged in a fault safe manner, as know to those skilled in the art. Vent manifold 150 is also utilized to evacuate reservoir 121 if over-pressure at gauge 122 is triggered or in the event of any other fault. Accordingly, in such a situation, normally-open vent valve 123 will open and excess hydrazine will be vented through line 152.

Condensation of liquid hydrazine poses a substantial risk because it may result in the undetected overproduction of excess hydrazine within the apparatus 100. If the temperatures of source chamber assembly 120, delivery manifold 140, or process apparatus 170 are lower than the dew-point at the set-point pressure, undetected over-production of hydrazine may occur. To prevent condensation, the temperatures of source components downstream from cartridge 110 should be higher, preferably significantly higher, than the dew point of the hydrazine at the controlled pressure. FIG. 6 displays the dew point (condensation) temperature of hydrazine as a function of pressure. It is recommended to keep the temperature of zones 128, 141, and 172 significantly higher than the dew-point temperatures indicated in this chart.

For improved safety, the temperatures of zones 128, 141 and 172 are also preferably monitored by normally-open temperature snap switches and interlocked to immediately stop hydrazine production if these switches snap when the temperature in any zone drops below the pre-determined safety margin. Accordingly, preventing condensation within source chamber 127 and other components related to temperature zone 128 is straightforward. In particular, components within zone 128 are preferably integrated into the construction of source chamber 127. Thermally controlled chamber walls and components should be maintained at temperatures that are at least 10° C. above the dew point of a controlled hydrazine pressure. Temperature snap switches are typically accurate within ±5° C. at the best and also suffer from a typical 10° C. hysteresis. Accordingly, zone 128 temperature should be set such that the lowest possible snap temperature of the normally-open snap switches should be a comfortable margin above the dew point.

To verify that condensation is not occurring, the source chamber 127 may be set at the desired set pressure and then isolated by closing both valve 125 and valve 130. If there is no condensation, the pressure should stay substantially steady as measured by pressure gauge 129. In contrast, a steady pressure drop may indicate that condensation is not completely eliminated. These tests should be thoroughly conducted whenever the pressure set-point (or the maximum pressure set-point) is changed, as well as periodically, as part of the equipment process verification.

Likewise, a condensation test should be executed periodically on the reservoir 121 and the delivery manifold 140. The reservoir 121 can be isolated with valves 112 and 125, and monitored by pressure gauge 122. The delivery manifold can be isolated with valves 130, 171, and 144, and monitored by pressure gauge 143.

Leaks should automatically halt production of hydrazine by artificially raising the pressure above set-point. It is also recommended to implement a redundancy of pressure measurements such as more than one pressure gauge at reservoir 121 (i.e., doubling up on pressure gauge 122). Alternatively, pressure gauge 143 may act as a backup pressure gauge for pressure gauge 129 when valve 130 is open.

Referring to the hydrazine production kinetics as presented in FIG. 2, a proper and safe hydrazine source may require cartridge temperature modulations of several tens of degrees between idle and process modes. For example, an exemplary TiN ALD process (discussed in greater detail below in the Section labeled “Exemplary Process No. 1”) was found to require an initial temperature of 186° C. during processing (needed to produce ˜1.2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec from a 1 kg load of HC), and an initial temperature of 160° C. during idle (needed to slow the production of hydrazine by a factor of >20). This 26° C. temperature change, in turn, requires ˜65 kilojoules (kJ) for a 1 kg HC cartridge with an estimated heat capacity of 2,500 joules/degrees-Celsius (J/° C.) (for both cartridge and HC load). Accordingly, a heating/cooling capacity of ˜1,080 watts (W) allows the temperature change to occur in 1 minute.

While this heating/cooling capacity may be achieved by, for example, resistive heating and cooling with a fluid heat exchanger, the actual heating/cooling requirements in actual practice may be substantially more moderate. For example, 50 nanometers (nm) of TiN requires ˜0.06 grams of hydrazine in a 1000 cycle process over an 8 minute period. However, a 0.25 L reservoir 121 set to a pressure of 100 Torr before processing starts already holds ˜0.047 grams of hydrazine. Moreover, consistent delivery of hydrazine at 8 Torr from the source chamber 127 only requires that the reservoir 121 holds a pressure slightly above that (e.g., ˜10 Torr). Accordingly, if the reservoir is, in fact, pre-charged to about 100 Torr before processing, the ˜30° C. temperature ramp-up the reservoir 121 need only occur within ˜5 minutes in order adequately catch up with the depletion of reservoir pressure. In this way, the presence of the reservoir chamber 121 substantially reduces the need for heating capacity. A 5 minute ramp-up of 30° C. requires only ˜230 W heating power.

In addition, the end of the process and termination of hydrazine demand drives a small rise of reservoir pressure which switches temperature zone 113 from heating to cooling. Concurrently, valve 125 shuts the path between reservoir 121 and source chamber 127. Even with a moderate cooling time of 10 minutes, source pressure remains close to set-point, as displayed in FIG. 3 (dashed line). At the same time, the accumulation of ˜0.02 grams of hydrazine, which is reasonably safe, elevates the pressure within the 0.25 L reservoir 121 by up to 20 Torr above the reservoir set-point. The accumulation of hydrazine in reservoir 121 brings the available hydrazine within the reservoir up to ˜0.067 grams which exceeds the process usage by ˜24%. In the next cycle, the extra 20 Torr pressure is initially used while the cartridge thermal zone 113 stays in cooling mode. After ˜160 sec. the reservoir pressure drops below 100 Torr and triggers the heating. This time catchup with hydrazine draw starts at the 1 minute to-go mark (only 1 minute before the deposition process ends) with the moderate heating time of ˜5 minutes. Clearly, a properly sized reservoir significantly decouples the production of hydrazine from the actual demand while at the same time preserving: hydrazine production that is tied to demand, the existence of only small quantities of anhydrous vapor at any given time, and the consistent supply of hydrazine at steady pressure and/or steady flow.

Importantly, this configuration consistently accommodates hydrazine supply during processing and a quick switching into idle mode with mild cooling and heating capacities (e.g., 100-250 W). The accumulation of excess hydrazine up to about 0.025 grams during a long idle time is not an intolerable tradeoff. For example, substantially long idle times, namely, idle 2 of 50 minutes and idle 3 of 25 minutes, were tested between successive TiN ALD process runs as displayed in FIG. 3. The sequence of process 1, idle 2, process 2, idle 3, and process 3 with hydrazine usage of 1.2×10⁻⁴, 0, 2.4×10⁻⁴, 0, and 4.8×10⁻⁴ grams/sec, respectively was accommodated with a reservoir chamber 121 and source chamber 127 of 0.25 and 1.75 L, respectively, to yield a consistent supply pressure of 8.01±0.06 Torr per set-point of 8.00 Torr as displayed in the figure (dotted line curve). Importantly, when a lot of parts such as wafers are coated sequentially with more standard idle times between wafers in the range of 2-5 minutes, reservoir 121 moderates the temperature modulation needed to sustain the consistency of the source chamber 127. This moderation is the result of a successive processes starting sooner than an idle-time-period capable of substantially reducing hydrazine production. For example, zone 113 temperatures drops by only 5-7° C. during 2 minute idle times. During such short idle times, hydrazine accumulation of 0.012 grams within reservoir chamber 121 (25.5 Torr pressure increase) is available to sustain the source pressure when the process again starts drawing hydrazine. The excess hydrazine lasts for ˜100 sec. and then triggers the HC heating. The HC temperature is then elevated 5-7° C. during the next minute.

Preferably, reservoir chamber 121 volume is selected such that it can accommodate as many different processes as needed within the controllable pressure range. However, it is also recommended to keep the accumulation within the reservoir at the minimum. For example, processing that typically implements short idle times, as in the case of sequential runs of wafers, could preferably implement smaller overall pressure×volume as the typical temperature modulations are not expected to be substantial.

Reducing the cartridge temperature below 120 is typically not necessary as the rate of hydrazine production falls by the factor exp(24,000/T₁-24,000/T₂), which is 6500 times lower than the rate at 186° C. For example, per the specific example detailed above, the rate drops from ˜1.2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec at 186° C. down to 1.85×10⁻⁸ grams/sec (per 1 kg load of HC) at 120° C., meaning that accumulation of hydrazine within 24 hours is less than 0.0016 grams. That is equivalent to less than a 4 Torr pressure rise. Similarly, reservoir pressure rise during an idle period of 1 hour at even 140° C. is less than a 3 Torr pressure rise. Accordingly, an embodiment may be switched from reservoir pressure control into constant temperature control during long idle time. It can, for example, be set to 140° C. for idle times of several hours, and to 120° C. for idle times of longer duration.

Two proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers are used to control the heating/cooling of cartridge thermal zone 113. Such controllers may, for example, comprise SD-series controllers from Watlow (St. Louis, Mo., USA). The control system 200 is illustrated in FIG. 7, wherein first PID controller 210 is configured for thermocouple 211 input. The thermocouple is compensated by cold junction 212. The amplified thermocouple reading is compared with set-point 213 by comparator 214 and converted into a duty cycle dependent transistor-transistor logic (TTL) signal by integrated circuit (IC) 215, as known in the art. Set-point 213 (e.g., 120° C.) is provided by the user from the front panel of the first controller and sets the minimum temperature to which the HC will be cooled. Alternatively, set-point 213 is provided by remote through an appropriate controller such as a programmable logic controller (PLC), as also known in the art.

The second PID controller 220 is configured to compare the reservoir pressure 221 and the pressure set-point 222. Set-point 222 is determined by the user from the front panel of the PID controller (e.g., 100 Torr). Alternatively, set-point 222 is provided by remote through an appropriate controller such as a PLC, as known in the art. Comparator 223 is used to compare the pressure to the set-point. Next, IC 224 converts the output of comparator 223 into a duty cycle of TTL. Subsequently, the duty cycle TTL from both IC 215 and IC 224 are added by AND gate 230. Next, the combined TTL is split into cooling circuit 250 and heating circuit 260. The TTL is inverted by NOT gate 251 and used to activate relay 252, which controls the cooling apparatus 253 inverse to the heating. The non-inverted TTL is used to activate relay 261 to connect the heating power phase 262 through the heater to the neutral 263 to drive resistive heater 271 and heat cartridge 270.

Accordingly, when pressure set-point 222 is equal or higher than pressure 221 (i.e., during idle time), the duty cycle of IC 224 is zero. However, the temperature 211 is still substantially higher than the temperature set-point (for the lowest possible temperature during idle) 213. Therefore, the duty cycle of IC 215 is also zero. The duty cycle coming out of AND gate 230 is zero. As a result, relay 261 never turns on—i.e. heating is off. In contrast, the inverted duty cycle is always 5 VDC (“high”), therefore continuously driving relay 252 and maintaining the cooling system at full power. Once the temperature 211 declines below set-point 213, the duty cycle of IC 215 increases and the TTL output of AND gate 230 alternates between “high” and “low” and the system settles to keep temperature 211 close to set-point. Once the process is resumed, hydrazine utilization drives reservoir pressure 221 down and the TTL output from comparator 224 increases. The combined duty cycle at gate 230 increases and the system is soon running substantially in heating mode. Once the temperature exceeds the temperature set-point, the TTL duty cycle of 215 goes down to zero and the system is back to essentially controlling on pressure.

It is also preferred to implement, as part of the method, an artificially large reservoir pressure set-point following a long idle time. For example, the embodiment described by way of example above may use a pressure set-point of 130 Torr within the first wafer run after a longer than usual idle time in order to artificially switch the HC zone 113 to heating as early as possible to accommodate the possibly low (e.g., 120° C. or 140° C.) starting zone 113 temperature. This higher reservoir pressure set-point should be set higher than the ˜120 Torr that the reservoir settles on during the idle time. As detailed above, that recipe modification enables zone 113 to switch into heating some 160 seconds earlier. The first recipe may then switch back to a reservoir pressure set-point of 100 Torr after several minutes to avoid over-production of hydrazine.

Notably, effective hydrazine abatement by mixing with strong oxidizers such as ozone should be preferably implemented to eliminate hydrazine from the process and vent exhaust. For example, the highly reactive hydrazine is rather easy to convert into products such as N₂, and water by a simple mixing with an ozone/oxygen/nitrogen gas mixture at the exhaust of a vacuum pump after the exhaust is highly diluted down to very low concentrations of hydrazine to ensure mild generation of heat and an easy to control abatement reaction. For example, pump 154 may be a standard fore-pump, such as a dry-pump. Typically, such dry pumps implement substantially high flows of nitrogen purge at the level of at least 5 standard liters per minute (sLm) that are sufficient to dilute typical levels of hydrazine emission between 1-10×10⁻⁴ grams/sec down to 0.08-0.8% v/v concentrations. At that level of dilution, adding a 5:45:50 mixture of O₃:O₂:N₂ at 1-2 sLm effectively converts virtually 100% of the hydrazine into by-products within a less than 1 meter long stainless steel exhaust line without any noticeable temperature rise or other indications of out-of-control reactions. The flow of abatement gas into the pump exhaust as well as the concentration of ozone are preferably monitored to ensure the availability of proper hydrazine abatement at all time. Preferably, pump purge within proper range is monitored by the pump as part of the pump OK interlock system. The production of hydrazine is preferably interlocked for the proper availability of pump 154 and abatement gas.

Preferably, both valves 123 and 144 are normally-open, meaning that they will automatically open by reverting to the normal position in the event of power loss or a triggered interlock. In order to produce hydrazine, valves 123 and 144 are commanded to shut and valve 125 is commanded to open. In order to deliver hydrazine to the process, valve 130 is commanded open. During process, valve 171 is opened as needed per process specifications. Downstream from valve 130, an additional pressure controller such as a MKS series 640A (not shown) can be implemented to reduce the pressure even further for improved consistency, or otherwise to obtain a lower dew-point temperature for delivery lines 142. Similarly, for some processes, an MFC downstream from valve 125 may be implemented to support flow control delivery for processes such as CVD. In some cases, flow sensors can also serve to control the production of hydrazine if implemented in serial communication between source chamber 127 and valve 130.

As taught in the illustrative embodiment above, interlocks may trigger the release of excess hydrazine from reservoir 121 and/or source chamber 127 into pump manifold 150. For example, this may occur if excess pressure within reservoir 121 exceeds the upper limit set for pressure gauge 122. This hard-wired operation may release a substantial quantity of hydrazine into the pump exhaust within several seconds. For example, vent of accumulated 0.1 grams of hydrazine within 5 seconds is possible. At that level, hydrazine concentration excursion to the 15-20% level momentarily may exceed the 1-2% concentration of ozone used for abatement. The low concentration of ozone mixed into the exhaust flow keeps the reaction slow and extends the conversion time of the hydrazine excursion by a factor of 10 in ˜1 minute. To accommodate the excursions, the exhaust should comprise a properly sized volume such as at least 7 L in the case of total exhaust flow of ˜7 sLm, as described above. For example a 1.93 inch inner diameter (ID) exhaust line (2 inches outer diameter (OD)) should be at least 160 inches long. Alternatively, it is recommended to include a wide section within the exhaust line to ensure the proper handling of hydrazine vent excursions such as a 10 inch long, 8 inch OD section. This larger than 7 L exhaust provides sufficient residence time for hydrazine to mix with sufficient quantities of ozone to completely abate a hydrazine concentration surge. Downstream from the hydrazine abatement section, ozone removal by catalytic conversion as known in the art is recommended. In addition, handling the by-products of hydrazine abatement, particularly minute quantities of NO and NO₂, should be handled as known in the art. For example, small quantities may be handled by properly sized activated carbon filters such as a sequence of BE and K type activated carbon filters made by Asura Filters (Rowley, Mass., USA). Alternatively, wet scrubbers, typically available in some manufacturing environments, such as semiconductor factories, may be used. The scrubbed exhaust should be monitored for below TLV emissions of all possible components including hydrazine, ammonia, NO, and NO₂, and the production of hydrazine should preferably be interlocked to shut down if above TLV levels of any of these substances is detected.

Advantageously, the leftover CA/HC from a used-up cartridge 110 can be recycled by a chemical manufacturer using a simple, low cost process. For example, the used-up cartridge 110 may be isolated with manual valve 112 and shipped to the chemical supplier. At the chemical plant, the cartridge 110 may be filled with a solvent such as DMSO to dissolve the CA and precipitate the leftover HC. The solution and the precipitation may then be collected and added to a chemical reactor wherein the solution is heated to 100-120° C. Next, hydrazine may be slowly added to the reactor and the HC allowed to precipitate. Hydrazine addition is terminated as soon as it no longer promotes any more HC precipitation. At that point, a small quantity of CA is added to precipitate all leftover hydrazine. Subsequently, the HC precipitation is separated, washed, dried, and outgassed extensively under vacuum and temperature (e.g., 100° C. for 10 hours wherein production of hydrazine is negligible at 7×10⁻¹³ grams/sec/gram-HC or 2.5×10⁻⁵ grams/10-hours). This negligible production is equivalent to 0.05 Torr pressure rise within a 0.25 L reservoir. Nevertheless, it is recommended to implement hydrazine abatement as described above.

This recycling procedure substantially reduces the cost of HC to about the cost of hydrazine and the cost to recreate HC. The cost of hydrazine in large quantities is presently about $0.25-0.5/gram. Assuming a lot charge for recycling 1000 grams HC and 7200 grams CA (which might be left over after consuming 90% of 10 kg load of HC) of $1000, the total cost for 1 kg HC is estimated to be ˜$145-190. One kg of HC will produce ˜180 grams of hydrazine assuming 90% consumption. Accordingly, with that cost, the 0.06 grams of hydrazine required to grow 50 nm of TiN per the example above will cost 5-6 cents. Additional costs for the film include up to 150 kJ or 0.04 kilowatt-hours (kWh) at an average commercial electricity cost of ˜10 cents/KWh or <0.5 cents. Estimated cost of the source at $30,000 amortized over 5 years or ˜34,000 runs/year (at 80% uptime) adds ˜18 cents to the film cost. Assuming miscellaneous additional costs of maintenance, overhead, safety, etc. at $20,000/year adds ˜12 cents to the cost. The total cost is therefore estimated at $0.36/film. This cost is very competitive. The hydrazine material cost fraction in this embodiment is <17%.

Hydrazine production from HC heating will require many conditions that are recommended to be hard-wire interlocked, as know in the art. In particular, any one of the following conditions should preferably interrupt power to the HC heaters and disallow the shutting down of the cooling, effectively, cooling down cartridge 110. These conditions are:

1. Temperature in zone 128 below set-point;

2. Temperature in zone 141 below set-point;

3. Temperature in zone 172 below set-point;

4. Pressure at 151 above set-point (meaning faulty vent manifold 150);

5. Pump 154 not working properly;

6. Abatement module 155 not working properly;

7. Hazardous gas monitor(s) 156 reading hydrazine, NO, NO₂, etc. above TLV;

8. Facilities gas monitors or any other facilities interlock not OK;

9. Valve 144 not shut;

10. Valve 123 not shut;

11. Over pressure at pressure gauge 122;

12. Zone 113 snap switches above set-point; and

13. Cartridge cooling apparatus not working

These and various other conditions, and the response of the apparatus 100 thereto, are compiled in Table 1:

TABLE 1 Device status: Zone Valve Valve Valve Valve Valve Situation Device 113 123 125 130 144 153 Valve 112 shut cool O C C O O Pressure 122 < set-point heat C N/A N/A C O Pressure 122 ≧ set-point cool C N/A N/A C O Zone 113 over-temperature cool O C C O O Zone 128 under temperature cool O C C O O Zone 141 under temperature cool O C C O O Zone 172 under temperature cool O C C O O Pressure 129 < set-point N/A N/A O N/A N/A O Pressure 129 ≧ set-point N/A N/A C N/A N/A O Pressure 151 < set-point N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A O Pressure 151 ≧ set-point cool C C C C C Pump 154 fault cool C C C C C Abatement 155 fault cool C C C C C Hazardous gas 156 - goes off cool C C C C C Power loss cool O C C O C Facilities hazardous gas cool C C C C C detection where “C” indicates that a valve is closed, and “O” indicates that a valve is open.

Several processes in accordance with illustrative embodiments of the invention using on-demand hydrazine are now described. The process conditions for these embodiments are summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Summary of source apparatus and method parameters for several exemplary processes Initial HC Final HC Deposi- Thick- HC load Process time/ Reservoir temperature temperature No. of tion rate ness size % idle time Hydrazine volume^(b)/ during process during process runs per Process (nm/min) (nm) (Kg.) usage (min) usage rate^(a) pressure^(c) (° C.) (° C.) load TiN ALD 10 50 1 90 5/2 1.2 0.25/100  186 207 5,000 Copper ALD 3 18 1 90 4/3 2 0.5/100 191 212 2,500 SiO₂ ALD 7.5 30 1 90 4/2 5 0.5/200 199 221 1,500 Platinum ALD 6  5 1 90 1/2 2 0.25/100  191 212 18,000 SiN CVD 20 50 2 95 2.5/2  5  1/100 193 221 5,000 Clean and N/A N/A 1 90  1/6^(d) 5 0.25/100  199 221 6,000 activation Post N/A N/A 1 90  1/6^(e) 5 0.5/200 188 209 1,500 deposition treatment Reactive N/A N/A 1 90 4/3 2 0.5/100 191 212 2,500 abatement of TiCl₄ or WF₆ ^(a)×10⁻⁴ grams/sec. ^(b)Liters ^(c)Torr ^(d)The pre-process idle time comprises the process time + the idle time ^(e)The post-process idle time comprises the process time + the idle time

Examplary Process No. 1—ALD of TiN:

An ALD deposition of TiN (i.e., titanium nitride) applies sequential reactions of TiCl₄ and hydrazine. The sequence of TiCl₄ and hydrazine grows 0.05 nm/cycle with an optimized cycle time of ˜0.5 seconds. Fifty nm of TiN is applied in this example as a top capacitor electrode or a barrier. A process time of 5 minutes at 1.2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at 186° C., increasing to 207° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During a 2 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜6° C. with 100 W cooling and the 0.25 L reservoir exceeds the set 100 Torr pressure by ˜25 Torr. This additional 25 Torr lasts ˜80 seconds prior to the trigger of HC heating. Then the pressure recovers to 100 Torr within approximately 60 seconds. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜5,000 8-inch wafers. Hydrazine generated in this manner was found to be much more effective than previously used NH₃ (ammonia) as well as monomethyl-hydrazine and dimethylhydrazine. For example, high-quality TiN films were grown below 300° C. at a cost-effective rate of 10 nm/min.

Examplarly Process No. 2—ALD of Copper:

An ALD process for copper applies sequential reactions of a copper precursor, such as Cu(acac)₂, Cu(thd)₂, or Cu(hfac)₂, followed by hydrazine/ozone (HOZ), and then followed by hydrazine exposure. The three step cycle is intended for effective removal of ligands from the copper precursor, followed by the effective reduction of a partially oxidized copper surface into metal. The mixture of hydrazine and ozone forms substantially in the vicinity of the substrate and is a very effective oxidizer. The sequence grows 0.075 nm/cycle with an optimized cycle time of ˜1 second. Eighteen nm of copper is applied in this example as a seed layer for copper ECD. A process time of 4 minutes at 2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at 191° C., increasing to 212° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During a 3 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜9° C. at 100 W cooling and the 0.5 L reservoir exceeds the set 100 Torr pressure by ˜17 Torr. This 17 Torr lasts ˜120 seconds prior to the trigger of HC heating. Then the pressure recovers to 100 Torr within approximately 90 seconds. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜2,500 8-inch wafers.

Exemplarly Process No. 3—ALD of SiO₂:

An ALD process for SiO₂ (i.e., silicon dioxide or silicon oxide) applies sequential reactions of Bis(diethylamino)silane (BDEAS) and HOZ. The mixture of hydrazine and ozone forms substantially in the vicinity of the substrate and is a very effective oxygen precursor. The sequence of BDEAS and HOZ grows 0.125 nm/cycle with an optimized cycle time of ˜1 second. Thirty nm of SiO₂ is applied in this example as a corrosion protective layer. A process time of 4 minutes at 5×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at 199° C., increasing to 221° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During a 2 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜6° C. at 100 W cooling and the 0.5 L reservoir exceeds the set 200 Torr pressure by ˜50 Torr. This 50 Torr lasts ˜90 seconds prior to the trigger of HC heating. Then the pressure recovers to 200 Torr within approximately 60 seconds. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜1,500 8-inch wafers.

Exemplary Process No. 4—ALD of Platinum:

An ALD process for platinum applies sequential reactions of a platinum precursor, such as (methylcyclopentadienyl)trimethylplatinum (MeCpPtMe₃), followed by HOZ. The cycle intends for effective removal of ligands from MeCpPtMe₃. The mixture of hydrazine and ozone forms substantially in the vicinity of the substrate and is a very effective oxidizer. The sequence grows ˜0.1 nm/cycle with an optimized cycle time of ˜1 second. Five nm of platinum is applied in this example as a contact for FRAM capacitor electrodes. A process time of 50 seconds at 2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at 191° C., increasing up to 212° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During a 2 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜4° C. at 50 W cooling and the 0.25 L reservoir exceeds the set 100 Torr pressure by ˜30 Torr. This extra 30 Torr drops down 21 Torr during the deposition of the next wafer while the temperature decreases further by an additional ˜2° C. In the next idle time the temperature drops an additional ˜4° C. to a total of 10° C. The pressure increase during that idle time is ˜14 Torr, causing the reservoir pressure to reach 123 Torr. In the next process/idle cycles, the zone 113 temperature keeps dropping until it eventually settles at ˜180° C. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜18,000 process runs.

Exemplary Process No. 5—CVD of SiN:

A CVD process for SiN (i.e., silicon nitride or Si₃N₄) applies the reaction of reactive silicon precursors, such as hexachlorodisilane, trisilane or disilane, with hydrazine. The process grows 50 nm within 2.5 minutes (20 nm/min). A process time of 2.5 minutes at 5×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 2 kg HC load at 193° C., elevating up to 221° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 5% potency. During a 2 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜6° C. at 100 W cooling and the 1 L reservoir exceeds the 100 Torr set-point pressure by ˜20 Torr. This 20 Torr lasts ˜60 seconds prior to the trigger of HC heating. Then the pressure recovers to 100 Torr within approximately 60 seconds. A 2 kg load of HC at 95% usage lasts ˜5,000 8-inch wafers. Hydrazine generated in this manner was found to be much more effective than NH₃ (ammonia), used to grow SiN previously.

Exemplary Process No. 6—Pre-Process Surface and Parts Treatment; Substrate Preparation for ALD with Functionality Groups; PCB and Plastics Cleanup and Activation:

Pre-process surface cleaning and surface activation processes apply a co-exposure of HOZ or hydrazine for the in-situ removal of contamination and for the population of the surface with reactive terminations such as hydroxyl or amine groups. The mixture of hydrazine and ozone forms substantially in the vicinity of the substrate and is a very effective oxidizer. Hydrazine is also an effective reducer and/or nitridizer. A process time of 1 minute at 5×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at 199° C., elevating up to 221° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During a subsequent process time and idle time (where hydrazine is not utilized), the pre-processing source is idle. For example, a total of 6 minutes elapses between successive surface cleaning/activation operations. To accommodate such small duty cycle applications, a preferable method simply uses the hydrazine already in the reservoir without heating the HC while the pre-processing operation is in progress. After the pre-processing operation, the hydrazine is replenished by slowly heating the HC. For example a 0.25 L reservoir is controlled to a set-point pressure of 100 Torr. During the 1 minute pre-processing operation, the reservoir pressure drops to 36 Torr. Subsequently, the pressure is recovered during the 6 minutes idle time. To replenish the draw of hydrazine during the 6 minute idle time, a 1 kg HC load is initially heated to 183° C., elevating up to 204° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜6,000 8-inch wafers.

Exemplary Process No. 7—Post Deposition Treatments:

Post-deposition treatment to improve films and materials applies co-exposures of HOZ or hydrazine for the in-situ improvement of many products. The mixture of hydrazine and ozone forms substantially in the vicinity of the substrate and is a very effective oxidizer. Hydrazine is also an effective reducer and/or nitridizer. A process time of 20-600 seconds at 0.1-5×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine initially pins the temperature of a 1 kg HC load at a temperature in the range of 180-210° C., elevating up to 230° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 95% potency. During a subsequent process and idle time (where hydrazine is not utilized), the post-treatment source is idle. For example, a total of 7 minutes elapses between successive post-treatment operations. To accommodate such small duty cycle applications, a preferable method simply uses the hydrazine already in the reservoir without heating the HC while the post-treatment operation is in progress. After the post-treatment operation, the hydrazine is replenished by slowly heating the HC. For example, a 0.5 L reservoir is controlled to a set-point pressure of 200 Torr. During the 2 minute post-treatment operation, the reservoir pressure drops to 72 Torr. Subsequently, the pressure is recovered during the 7 minute idle time. To replenish the draw of hydrazine during the 7 minute idle time, a 1 kg HC load is heated to 188° C., elevating up to 209° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. In this case, 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜1,500 sequences.

Exemplary Process No. 8—Reactive Abatement of TiCl₄ and WF₆:

During the ALD or CVD of TiN and TiO₂, and the ALD and CVD of W and WN, unused TiCl₄ and WF₆ can be abated downstream from the process chamber, as described in US Patent Publication No. 2007/0012402, entitled “Apparatus and method for downstream pressure control and sub-atmospheric reactive gas abatement,” to one of the current inventors. This integrated reactive abatement process applies the reaction of reactive hydrazine and HOZ to effectively convert the reactive chemicals into solid inert deposits such as TiN, TiO, W, and WN over a high area abatement trap. The abatement process is carried out during the deposition process. For example, the deposition process may take 4 minutes and the idle process may take 3 minutes. In such a case, a 1 kg HC load at ˜191° C. produces 2×10⁻⁴ grams/sec hydrazine for abatement when the source is fresh, elevating up to 212° C. after the exhaustion of the source down to 10% potency. During the 3 minute idle time, the source temperature drops ˜9° C. at 100 W cooling and the 0.5 L reservoir exceeds the set 100 Torr pressure by ˜17 Torr. This 17 Torr lasts ˜120 seconds prior to the trigger of HC heating. Then the pressure recovers to 100 Torr within approximately 90 seconds. In this case 1 kg of HC at 90% usage lasts ˜2,500 8-inch wafers.

It should again be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the invention are intended to be illustrative only. Other embodiments can use different chemical species, different types and arrangements of elements, and different method steps for implementing the described functionality. For example, while the above-described embodiments are directed at producing hydrazine, other hazardous reactants including, but not limited to, arsine, phosphine, tungsten hexafluoride, boron trichloride, silane, disilane, trisilane and diborane may be safely produced using apparatus and methods in accordance with aspects of the invention. One skilled in the art will recognize the various chemical complexes that may be used to evolve these various reactants. Moreover, the chemical transformation of such reactants into stable chemical complexes is further described by G. B. Seifer in “Cyanuric Acid and Cyanurates,” Russian Journal of Coordination Chemistry, 28, 2002, p. 301, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. These numerous alternative embodiments within the scope of the invention will be apparent to one skilled in the art.

In so much as aspects of the present invention teach methods of manufacture, the invention is further intended to encompass products of manufacture that are formed at least in part using these methods. Moreover, all the features disclosed herein may be replaced by alternative features serving the same, equivalent, or similar purpose, unless expressly stated otherwise. Thus, unless expressly stated otherwise, each feature disclosed is one example only of a generic series of equivalent or similar features. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method to be performed in an apparatus with a reservoir space in gas communication with a reactant space, the method comprising the steps of: placing into the reactant space a reactant complex that is capable of evolving a reactant in the reactant space via thermal decomposition when heated; heating the reactant complex when a pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is below a predetermined set-point, and cooling the reactant complex when the pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is above the predetermined set-point; and utilizing the reactant from the reservoir space in a process.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactant complex comprises hydrazine cyanurate and the reactant comprises hydrazine.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the process comprises deposition of a film.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the process comprises atomic layer deposition of a film.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises one or more nitrides.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises at least one of aluminum nitride, silicon nitride, gallium nitride, titanium nitride, tantalum nitride, niobium nitride, tungsten nitride, and boron nitride.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises titanium nitride, and the atomic layer deposition further utilizes titanium tetrachloride.
 8. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises silicon nitride, and the atomic layer deposition further utilizes at least one of hexachlorodisilane, trisilane, and disilane.
 9. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises one or more metals.
 10. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises at least one of copper, molybdenum, platinum, titanium, and silver.
 11. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises platinum, and the atomic layer deposition further utilizes methylcyclopentadienyltrimethylplatinum.
 12. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises copper, and the atomic layer deposition further utilizes at least one of copper acetylacetonate, copper bistetramethylheptanedionate, and copper hexafluoroacetylacetonate.
 13. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises one or more oxides.
 14. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises at least one of aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, hafnium oxide, tantalum oxide, and niobium oxide.
 15. The method of claim 4, wherein the film comprises silicon oxide, and the atomic layer deposition further utilizes bisdiethylaminosilane.
 16. The method of claim 2, wherein the process comprises cleaning a surface and terminating the surface with one or more functional groups.
 17. The method of claim 2, wherein the process comprises modifying properties of an existing film.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the existing film comprises at least one of a low-k dielectric, a high-k dielectric, and copper.
 19. A product of manufacture produced in an apparatus with a reservoir space in gas communication with a reactant space using a method comprising the steps of: placing into the reactant space a reactant complex that is capable of evolving a reactant in the reactant space via thermal decomposition when heated; heating the reactant complex when a pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is below a predetermined set-point, and cooling the reactant complex when the pressure of the reactant in the reservoir space is above the predetermined set-point; and utilizing the reactant from the reservoir space as a reactant in a process.
 20. The product of manufacture of claim 19, wherein the reactant complex comprises hydrazine cyanurate and the reactant comprises hydrazine. 